Household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery in Zambia: A cross-sectional study

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Study Justification:
– Financial barriers contribute to maternal and neonatal mortality in low- and middle-income countries.
– Savings accrued during pregnancy can increase access to safe delivery services.
– Investigating the relationship between household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery can provide insights into improving access to delivery services.
Study Highlights:
– A cross-sectional study conducted in Zambia with 2381 women who delivered a child in the previous 12 months.
– Women reported on the adequacy of their household savings during pregnancy.
– Household savings were categorized as did not save, saved but not enough, and saved enough.
– Positive associations were found between household wealth and both categories of saving.
– Earlier attendance at antenatal care was positively associated with saving enough.
– Women in households that saved but not enough and saved enough had significantly higher odds of facility delivery.
– Both categories of saving were associated with higher overall expenditure on delivery, particularly on baby clothes and transportation.
– Interventions encouraging early saving in pregnancy may improve access to facility delivery services.
Study Recommendations:
– Implement interventions that promote saving early in pregnancy to increase access to facility delivery services.
– Provide financial education and support to help households save enough for delivery expenses.
– Strengthen antenatal care services to encourage early attendance and promote saving behavior.
– Develop programs to address the specific needs related to baby clothes and transportation expenses during delivery.
Key Role Players:
– Ministry of Health: Responsible for implementing interventions and policies related to maternal and neonatal health.
– Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Can provide financial education and support programs for pregnant women and their households.
– Health facility staff: Play a crucial role in promoting antenatal care attendance and encouraging saving behavior.
– Community leaders: Can help raise awareness and support for saving initiatives during pregnancy.
Cost Items for Planning Recommendations:
– Financial education programs: Budget for materials, training, and outreach activities.
– Support programs for saving: Allocate funds for incentives, grants, or microfinance initiatives.
– Strengthening antenatal care services: Consider costs for training healthcare providers, improving facilities, and promoting early attendance.
– Programs addressing baby clothes and transportation expenses: Budget for subsidies, vouchers, or transportation services.
Note: The actual cost of implementing these recommendations will depend on the specific context and resources available in Zambia.

The strength of evidence for this abstract is 7 out of 10.
The evidence in the abstract is based on a cross-sectional study design, which limits the ability to establish causality. However, the study includes a large sample size and uses statistical analysis to explore associations between household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery. To improve the strength of the evidence, future research could consider using a longitudinal design to establish temporal relationships and conduct randomized controlled trials to assess the effectiveness of interventions that encourage saving early in pregnancy.

Financial barriers cause many women in low- and middle-income countries to deliver outside of a health facility, contributing to maternal and neonatal mortality. Savings accrued during pregnancy can increase access to safe delivery services. We investigated the relationship between household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery. A cross-section of 2381 women who delivered a child in the previous 12 months was sampled from 40 health facility catchment areas across eight districts in three provinces in Zambia in April and May of 2016. During a household survey, women reported on their perceptions of the adequacy of their household savings during their recent pregnancy. Households were categorized based on women’s responses as: did not save; saved but not enough; and saved enough. We estimated crude and adjusted associations between perceived adequacy of savings and facility delivery. We also explored associations between savings and expenditures on delivery. Overall, 51% of women surveyed reported that their household saved enough for delivery; 32% reported saving but not enough; and 17% did not save. Household wealth was positively associated with both categories of saving, while earlier attendance at antenatal care was positively associated with saving enough. Compared with women in households that did not save, those in households that saved but not enough (aOR 1.63; 95% CI: 1.17, 2.25) and saved enough (aOR 2.86; 95% CI: 2.05, 3.99) had significantly higher odds of facility delivery. Both categories of saving were significantly associated with higher overall expenditure on delivery, driven in large part by higher expenditures on baby clothes and transportation. Our findings suggest that interventions that encourage saving early in pregnancy may improve access to facility delivery services.

Data were collected during baseline of an ongoing cluster randomized controlled trial evaluating the impact of a maternity waiting home intervention in April and May of 2016 [clinicaltrials.gov identifier: ({“type”:”clinical-trial”,”attrs”:{“text”:”NCT02620436″,”term_id”:”NCT02620436″}}NCT02620436)]. The trial covers 40 health facility catchment areas in Choma, Kalomo and Pemba districts in Southern Province, Nyimba and Lundazi districts in Eastern Province, and Mansa and Chembe districts in Luapula Province and has been described extensively elsewhere (Lori et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2018a). Households were identified using a multi-stage random sampling procedure. In the first stage of sampling, every village within the study facility catchment areas were visited and GPS co-ordinates were taken. Co-ordinates were then used to determine the distance of each village center to their designated health facility by travel distance along the most direct route, and only villages at least 10 km (rounding up from 9.5 km) from their designated health facility were considered in subsequent stages of sampling. Ten villages were randomly selected from each catchment area with probability proportional to population size. In the second stage of sampling, an exhaustive list of households that had delivered in the previous 12 months was created with input from the facility and traditional leadership, and the households were randomly ordered. Each household was then visited in that random order and confirmed for eligibility. The process continued down the list until approximately six eligible households were enrolled in each village. To be eligible, women had to have delivered a child during the previous 12 months and be at least 15 years old. If a household had more than one eligible participant, one respondent was selected at random by the electronic data capture system. The target sample size was 2400. Ethical approvals were obtained from the [Boston University] Institutional Review Board (Protocol number [H-34526]) and ERES Converge in Zambia (Protocol number [2015-Dec-012]). Household savings was measured using a nested pair of closed-ended questions. Women were first asked whether they had ‘money set aside in preparation for [their] last delivery’. Those who answered ‘yes’ were then asked whether they thought they had ‘saved enough money’. For the analysis, responses were coded as perceived adequacy of savings with three categories: did not save; saved but not ‘enough’; and saved ‘enough’. These questions captured respondents’ perceptions and were not corroborated with objective estimates of savings values. Questions on savings were designed to elicit information on household savings, not only a women’s personal savings, and additional data were collected on where savings were stored and who else contributed. Information on when during pregnancy saving started, measured by gestational age in months, was also collected. Finally, women reported whether they had ever saved at a bank, and rated the importance of saving for delivery using a likert scale from not important to very important. The primary outcome of interest was delivery at a health facility. We recorded the location of each woman’s last delivery, including the facility where she delivered if she delivered at a health facility. Analysis focused on the dichotomous outcome of whether delivery occurred at a health facility, regardless of type or location. Perceived quality of delivery services is also an outcome of interest, and was measured among women who delivered at a health facility. Women were asked whether or not they experienced problems with the quality of the following: technical quality of medical care received, respect shown by healthcare workers, privacy during delivery, and cleanliness of the healthcare facility. These data were analysed as a dichotomous variable indicating whether or not pregnant women reported at least one problem with their delivery facility. We also explore the relationship between perceived adequacy of savings and expenditures on delivery. Data on several expenditure categories related to delivery were collected in the local currency (Zambian Kwacha, ZMW): delivery supplies, baby clothes, transportation, stay at a maternity waiting home, provider/health center fees, informal payments, tips, in-kind resources, drugs, diagnostic tests and other fees. We collected demographic characteristics at the individual and household levels to investigate associations with savings behaviour. This included age, years of education, distance from designated clinic (in kilometers), marital status, number of household members, parity, gravida, HIV status and household wealth. Marital status and HIV status were coded as dichotomous indicators. An indicator of household wealth was constructed with principle component analysis of asset information. All other demographic variables were included as continuous variables in the analysis. We collected data on the number of antenatal care visits each woman attended during her pregnancy, and when she attended her first session measured by gestational age in months. Lastly, we asked each woman where she had intended to deliver, and who the primary decision maker was for the location of delivery. This was coded as a dichotomous variable indicating whether or not the woman herself was the primary decision maker. First, we calculated descriptive statistics, stratifying by perceived adequacy of savings during pregnancy. We conducted a set of t-tests comparing participant characteristics across categories of perceived adequacy of savings. Next, we fit a series of logistic regression models to estimate crude and adjusted associations between perceived adequacy of savings and facility delivery. Among those who delivered at a health facility, we repeated the analysis to estimate the relationship between savings and perceived quality of delivery services. Finally, we summarized expenditures on delivery and conducted a set of t-tests comparing expenditures across savings categories. All models were fit using Stata version 14 (College Station, TX, USA: StataCorp LP). All standard errors were clustered at the village level to account for the study design.

Based on the study titled “Household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery in Zambia: A cross-sectional study,” the following innovations can be developed to improve access to maternal health:

1. Promote early savings during pregnancy: Develop a mobile application that provides pregnant women with information on the importance of saving for delivery and allows them to set savings goals and track their progress.

2. Financial literacy and empowerment: Create a digital platform that offers interactive financial literacy courses specifically tailored to pregnant women and their families. The platform can include modules on budgeting, saving, and making informed financial decisions related to maternal health.

3. Establish community-based savings groups: Develop a mobile-based platform that connects pregnant women and their families with local savings groups. The platform can facilitate group meetings, provide financial management tools, and enable members to contribute to a collective savings pool.

4. Link savings to formal financial institutions: Collaborate with banks and mobile money providers to create savings accounts specifically designed for pregnant women. These accounts can offer incentives such as higher interest rates and access to microloans for maternal health expenses.

5. Improve antenatal care attendance: Develop a mobile application that sends reminders and provides information about the importance of attending antenatal care appointments. The app can also offer incentives, such as discounts on maternal health services, to encourage regular attendance.

6. Address transportation challenges: Partner with ride-sharing companies to provide discounted or subsidized transportation services for pregnant women to reach healthcare facilities. This can be done through a mobile application that allows women to request transportation and tracks their usage for reimbursement purposes.

7. Enhance the quality of delivery services: Implement a feedback system that allows women to rate and provide feedback on the quality of delivery services they receive. This information can be used to identify areas for improvement and ensure that healthcare providers are held accountable for delivering high-quality care.

By implementing these innovations, it is possible to address the financial barriers to accessing maternal health services and improve the overall health outcomes for pregnant women and their newborns.
AI Innovations Description
The study mentioned in the description titled “Household saving during pregnancy and facility delivery in Zambia: A cross-sectional study” provides valuable insights into improving access to maternal health. Based on the findings, the following recommendations can be developed into an innovation:

1. Promote early savings during pregnancy: Encourage women and their households to start saving for delivery early in pregnancy. This can be done through awareness campaigns, educational programs, and community-based interventions that emphasize the importance of saving for safe delivery services.

2. Financial literacy and empowerment: Provide financial literacy training and resources to pregnant women and their families. This can help them better understand the benefits of saving, manage their finances effectively, and make informed decisions regarding maternal health expenses.

3. Establish community-based savings groups: Facilitate the formation of community-based savings groups where pregnant women and their families can pool their resources and save collectively. These groups can provide a supportive environment for saving, offer financial advice, and create a sense of community empowerment.

4. Link savings to formal financial institutions: Encourage pregnant women and their households to save in formal financial institutions such as banks. This can help them access additional financial services, build creditworthiness, and potentially earn interest on their savings.

5. Improve antenatal care attendance: Strengthen efforts to increase antenatal care attendance, as the study found a positive association between early attendance at antenatal care and saving enough for delivery. This can be achieved through community outreach, improved healthcare infrastructure, and addressing barriers to accessing antenatal care services.

6. Address transportation challenges: Recognize the role of transportation costs in hindering access to facility delivery. Develop innovative transportation solutions, such as community-based transportation services or partnerships with transportation providers, to reduce the financial burden of reaching healthcare facilities.

7. Enhance the quality of delivery services: Address the reported problems with the quality of delivery services, including technical quality of care, respect shown by healthcare workers, privacy, and cleanliness. This can be achieved through training healthcare providers, improving facility infrastructure, and implementing quality assurance mechanisms.

By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to develop innovative approaches that improve access to maternal health services and reduce maternal and neonatal mortality rates.
AI Innovations Methodology
To simulate the impact of the main recommendations on improving access to maternal health, the following methodology can be used:

1. Define the target population: Identify the specific population that the recommendations aim to benefit, such as pregnant women and their households in low- and middle-income countries.

2. Collect baseline data: Gather information on the current status of access to maternal health services, including facility delivery rates, savings behavior during pregnancy, financial literacy levels, antenatal care attendance, transportation challenges, and perceived quality of delivery services. This can be done through surveys, interviews, and existing data sources.

3. Develop a simulation model: Create a simulation model that incorporates the main recommendations and their potential impact on improving access to maternal health. The model should consider factors such as the percentage of women who start saving early, the increase in financial literacy levels, the formation and effectiveness of community-based savings groups, the percentage of women who save in formal financial institutions, the increase in antenatal care attendance, the reduction in transportation costs, and the improvement in the quality of delivery services.

4. Input data and parameters: Input the baseline data and parameters into the simulation model. This includes information on the target population, the current status of access to maternal health services, and the potential impact of each recommendation.

5. Run the simulation: Run the simulation model to simulate the impact of the main recommendations on improving access to maternal health. The model should generate outputs such as the increase in facility delivery rates, the change in savings behavior during pregnancy, the improvement in financial literacy levels, the effectiveness of community-based savings groups, the percentage of women saving in formal financial institutions, the increase in antenatal care attendance, the reduction in transportation costs, and the improvement in the perceived quality of delivery services.

6. Analyze the results: Analyze the simulation results to understand the potential impact of the main recommendations on improving access to maternal health. This can include quantifying the changes in facility delivery rates, savings behavior, financial literacy levels, antenatal care attendance, transportation costs, and perceived quality of delivery services.

7. Refine and validate the model: Refine the simulation model based on the analysis of the results and validate it using additional data sources or expert input. This ensures that the model accurately represents the potential impact of the main recommendations.

8. Communicate the findings: Present the findings of the simulation in a clear and concise manner, highlighting the potential benefits of implementing the main recommendations. This can be done through reports, presentations, or visualizations.

By using this methodology, policymakers and stakeholders can gain insights into the potential impact of the main recommendations on improving access to maternal health and make informed decisions on implementing innovative approaches.

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