At the frontlines of digitisation: A qualitative study on the challenges and opportunities in maintaining accurate, complete and timely digital health records in India’s government health system

Objectives To understand factors underpinning the accuracy and timeliness of mobile phone numbers and other health information captured in India’s government registry for pregnant and postpartum women. Accurate and timely registration of mobile phone numbers is necessary for beneficiaries to receive mobile health services. Setting Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan states in India at the community, clinical, and administrative levels of the health system. Participants Interviews (n=59) with frontline health workers (FLHWs), data entry operators, and higher level officials. Focus group discussions (n=12) with pregnant women to discuss experiences with sharing data in the health system. Observations (n=9) of the process of digitization and of interactions between stakeholders for data collection. Primary and secondary outcome measures Thematic analysis identified how key actors experienced the data collection and digitisation process, reasons for late or inaccurate data, and mechanisms that can bolster timeliness and accuracy. Results Pregnant women were comfortable sharing mobile numbers with health workers, but many were unaware that their data moved beyond their FLHW. FLHWs valued knowing up-to-date beneficiary mobile numbers, but felt little incentive to ensure accuracy in the digital record system. Delays in registering pregnant women in the online portal were attributed to slow movement of paper records into the digital system and difficulties in gathering required documents from beneficiaries. Data, including women’s phone numbers, were handwritten and copied multiple times by beneficiaries and health workers with variable literacy. Supervision tended to focus on completeness rather than accuracy. Health system actors noted challenges with the digital system but valued the broader project of digitisation. Conclusions Increased focus on training, supportive supervision, and user-friendly data processes that prioritise accuracy and timeliness should be considered. These inputs can build on existing positive patient-provider relationships and health system actors’ enthusiasm for digitisation.

This qualitative study took place in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, two large Hindi-speaking states in central and western India, respectively. These states show steadily improving but still high burdens of maternal and child mortality, significant gender gaps around technology access and literacy, and suboptimal maternal healthcare services (table 1). Social and health indicators, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh MCP, Mother and Child Protection. Both Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan moved to digital health records in the late 2000s, however, there are important differences between the states, in terms of the digital programmes and processes implemented (table 2). In 2016, Madhya Pradesh transitioned from MCTS to RCH. RCH added urban coverage, an initial registration of all ‘eligible couples’ (married couples of reproductive age) who would then be linked to pregnancy tracking when a pregnancy occurred, and the creation of village profiles.15 Furthermore, RCH expanded the data elements collected from 111 (in MCTS) to 247 to include abortion tracking, beneficiary bank account and identification details (including the Aadhaar national identification number), additional details about the pregnant woman’s antenatal care, infant feeding practice and the child’s immunisation records for his or her first 5 years.15 Mobile phone numbers were collected in MCTS and continued to be in RCH. In contrast to Madhya Pradesh, the Rajasthan state government did not adopt RCH, but instead retained its state-level version of MCTS, called the Pregnancy, Child Tracking and Health Services Management System (PCTS), which syncs with MCTS. Online supplemental annexure 1 contains an explanation of key acronyms and terms. Comparing Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh’s digital HIS ANM, auxiliary nurse midwife; ASHA, Accredited Social Health Activist; HIS, health information system; MCP, Mother and Child Protection; MCTS, Maternal and Child Health Tracking System; PCTS, Pregnancy Child Tracking and Health Services Management System; RCH, Reproductive and Child Health. bmjopen-2021-051193supp002.pdf The states thus enable us to examine data systems in a more typical case (Madhya Pradesh), which, like most large Indian states, recently moved from MCTS to RCH, and an outlier case (Rajasthan), which has retained a tailor-made electronic record system since the beginning of digitisation. Five experienced qualitative researchers with master’s level social science degrees (authors OU (male) MS, DG, BM and NC (female)) conducted in-depth interviews (n=59), focus groups (n=12) and observation of data collection and entry (n=9) in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in September and October 2018 (table 3). All researchers were trained over a 1-week period, which included pilot testing the FLHW interview guide. In each state, we selected one district and two blocks within that district with high levels of female phone ownership to explore barriers to capturing women’s mobile phone numbers in MCTS/RCH. We sampled government health system actors who were involved in MCTS/RCH at the state, district, block and frontline levels, including medical officers, data entry officers and frontline providers as well as with women who recently interacted with government healthcare providers in situations where they were asked to register their mobile numbers in MCTS/RCH (table 3). Respondent sample ANM, auxiliary nurse midwife; ASHA, Accredited Social Health Activist; DEOs, data entry operators; FGDs, Focus Group Discussions; FLHW, frontline health worker; IDIs, in depth interviews; MCTS, Maternal and Child Health Tracking System; MOs, medical officers; PHC, Primary Health Centre; RCH, Reproductive and Child Health. The respondents were approached through their government health facility. A research team member contacted potential respondents by phone or face-to-face and explained the study, and that the team was from a Delhi-based company and had governmental approval, then invited them for a face-to-face meeting to learn more and, if they agreed, to participate. The study information and informed consent were read to each potential participant and then summarised in conversational language to ensure comprehension. While all the health facility staff approached for the study agreed to participate, three women invited to attend focus groups declined, sitting responsibilities at home. The interviews took about an hour and the focus group discussions (FGDs) took about an hour and a half; all were conducted in health faculty compounds and were audio recorded, and detailed notes were taken. When curious onlookers came over during focus groups and interviews, another researcher politely asked them to move on. If any supervisors, patients or family members stopped by to speak to the respondents during the interviews or focus groups the research paused until privacy was restored. FGDs ranged from 4 to 10 participants (mean 7.6 participants). The focus group compositions broadly reflected local demographics. They included women with a wide range of education levels (from no education to master’s degrees), castes (most included a mix of women from marginalised schedule caste and schedule tribal groups as well as women from ‘other backwards castes’ and general caste groups) and religions (three included some Hindu and some Muslim women, while the remainder were all Hindu). Most women were homemakers, while a sizeable minority worked as agricultural farmers and labourers, and also included students, tailors, shopkeepers and bangle/jewellery saleswomen. Interviews and FGDs were conducted using semistructured guides that explored a range of domains around sharing, documenting, inputting and using data, with a focus on mobile numbers (see online supplemental file 1, eg, of the guides). We explored potential drivers of inaccuracies and delays by asking about late pregnancy identification, FLHW work environment and the relationship between beneficiaries and FLHWs. In the interviews with health system actors, we also explored each step of a detailed description of data flow (figure 1) from when a pregnant woman first interacts with an FLHW until her health information is entered into the online portal and beyond to understand perceptions on the use of this data. Data flow framework for electronic health record systems. FLHW, frontline health worker. bmjopen-2021-051193supp001.pdf Daily debriefs enabled the team to share emergent findings, refine the focus of their probing for the next day’s data collection and identify areas of saturation. The audio files were transcribed and translated into English. Data were coded in Dedoose by OU and KS, using principles of thematic network analysis.16 A coding framework was developed that consisted of emergent codes on specific reasons for inaccurate and delayed data, which were then grouped according to an overarching data flow framework (figure 1). For instance, we created a code cluster for late antenatal care registration, which included codes to be applied to text describing when and how pregnancies come to the FLHW’s attention, when pregnancies were entered into the online portal, reasons FLHWs become aware of pregnancies late (after the first trimester) and the implications of a woman’s choice of the public or private sector for antenatal care on timeliness of registration. After coding, we read the text excerpts that had been tagged for specific codes to identify how key actors experience of the data collection and digitisation process, reasons for late or inaccurate data and mechanisms that can bolster timeliness and accuracy. While we initially set out to understand inaccuracies and delays in entering mobile phone numbers into the pregnancy registry, it became clear that this one piece of data could not be separated from the broader data collection process at the frontlines of government health service provision. We, thus, examined mobile phone number data collection and digitisation within the context of an overarching health system data flow framework (figure 1). This framework identifies six components that enable the creation and movement of health data, including mobile phone numbers, from beneficiaries through FLHWs to electronic data entry and onward. The first component, ‘beneficiary’, describes women’s access to the data required for documentation (e.g., whether they have a mobile phone number to provide) as well as their attitudes towards sharing this data with government health system functionaries (e.g., their willingness to provide their mobile numbers when asked). The second component considers the beneficiary-FLHW interactions that initiate the government health system’s awareness of a health event. In this section, we consider how and when FLHWs become aware of a new pregnancy, the value that FLHWs place on collecting beneficiary data and the strategies used to collect data. The third component involves the creation of initial paper records. In this section, we consider the various official and unofficial forms and registers where data are recorded, the health worker’s literacy and numeracy if data are copied from paper form to paper form, and potential delays between a health worker interacting with a beneficiary and a paper record being created. The fourth component considers the process through which a paper health record reaches the site of digitisation. We consider how often the FLHW visits the digitisation site and whether the FLWH waits to bring paper records for digitisation until all mandatory fields have been filled out. While steps 3 and 4 may be dropped as FLHWs directly create digital records themselves, in many health systems in lower resource settings, paper records are still created during outreach service provision. The fifth component is the time when data are digitised and considers the data entry personnel’s work environment, training, the electronic portal interface and staffing considerations. The final component examines the ongoing use of data through paper forms and online systems. Here, we consider how data can be corrected or updated, data monitoring and supervision and the use of data by FLHWs and higher level health system actors. The research was shaped by health system actor priorities, experiences and preferences through iterative probing and flexibility within our research domains. Results were disseminated to Government of India stakeholders but not to research participants due to the policy-level implications of our findings.

• scott, kerry
• ummer, osama
• chamberlain, sara
• sharma, manjula
• gharai, dipanwita
• mishra, bibha
• choudhury, namrata
• mohan, diwakar
• lefevre, amnesty e.