Birth preparedness and complication readiness among women of reproductive age in Kenya and Tanzania: a community-based cross-sectional survey

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Study Justification:
The study aimed to assess the level of birth preparedness and complication readiness (BPCR) among women in Kenya and Tanzania. Delayed health-seeking contributes to preventable maternal and neonatal deaths in low-resource countries. By understanding the level of BPCR and the factors associated with it, the study aimed to identify strategies to improve pregnancy outcomes and reduce maternal and neonatal mortality.
Highlights:
– Only 11.4% of women in Kenya and 7.6% in Tanzania were well-prepared for birth and its complications.
– Factors associated with BPCR included level of education, delivery within a health facility, knowledge of danger signs during pregnancy, labor, and postpartum, and receiving antenatal care.
– Improving education, creating awareness of danger signs, and promoting antenatal care and skilled birth care are recommended strategies to improve BPCR practices and pregnancy outcomes.
Recommendations for Lay Readers:
– Pregnant women should be educated about the importance of birth preparedness and complication readiness.
– Families and communities should be involved in discussions about the place of delivery, who will perform the delivery, setting aside funds, arranging transport, and identifying a blood donor.
– Women should seek antenatal care and deliver in health facilities with skilled providers.
– Knowledge of danger signs during pregnancy, labor, and postpartum should be promoted.
Recommendations for Policy Makers:
– Improve access to education for women to increase their level of preparedness.
– Implement awareness campaigns to educate communities about danger signs and the importance of BPCR.
– Strengthen antenatal care services and promote skilled birth attendance.
– Allocate resources to support the implementation of BPCR strategies.
Key Role Players:
– Ministry of Health in Kenya and Tanzania
– Non-governmental organizations working in maternal and child health
– Community health workers and volunteers
– Health facility staff
– Educators and schools
Cost Items for Planning Recommendations:
– Development and dissemination of educational materials
– Training programs for healthcare providers and community health workers
– Awareness campaigns through various media channels
– Strengthening antenatal care services, including staffing and equipment
– Support for transportation services for pregnant women
– Monitoring and evaluation of BPCR programs and interventions

The strength of evidence for this abstract is 8 out of 10.
The evidence in the abstract is strong because it is based on a community-based cross-sectional survey conducted in Kenya and Tanzania. The study used quantitative baseline data from the AQCESS and IMPACT projects, which were executed by the Aga Khan Foundation Canada with funding from the Government of Canada. The sample size was calculated using appropriate statistical methods, and data were collected using a pretested questionnaire. The study followed the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies. To improve the evidence, it would be helpful to provide more details about the sampling method and the representativeness of the study population.

Background: Delayed health-seeking continues to contribute to preventable maternal and neonatal deaths in low resource countries. Some of the strategies to avoid the delay include early preparation for the birth and detection of danger signs. We aimed to assess the level of practice and factors associated with birth preparedness and complication readiness (BPCR) in Kenya and Tanzania. Methods: We conducted community-based multi-stage cross-sectional surveys in Kilifi and Kisii counties in Kenya and Mwanza region in Tanzania and included women who delivered two years preceding the survey (2016–2017). A woman who mentioned at least three out of five BPCR components was considered well-prepared. Bivariate and multivariable proportional odds model were used to determine the factors associated with the BPCR. The STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies informed the design and reporting of this study. Results: Only 11.4% (59/519) and 7.6% (31/409) of women were well-prepared for birth and its complications in Kenya and Tanzania, respectively, while 39.7 and 30.6% were unprepared, respectively. Level of education (primary: adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 1.59, 95% CI: 1.14–2.20, secondary: aOR: 2.24, 95% CI: 1.39–3.59), delivery within health facility (aOR: 1.63, 95% CI: 1.15–2.29), good knowledge of danger signs during pregnancy (aOR: 1.28, 95% CI: 0.80–2.04), labour and childbirth (aOR: 1.57, 95% CI: 0.93–2.67), postpartum (aOR: 2.69, 95% CI: 1.24–5.79), and antenatal care were associated with BPCR (aOR: 1.42, 95% CI: 1.13–1.78). Conclusion: Overall, most pregnant women were not prepared for birth and its complications in Kilifi, Kisii and Mwanza region. Improving level of education, creating awareness on danger signs during preconception, pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum period, and encouraging antenatal care and skilled birth care among women and their male partners/families are recommended strategies to promote BPCR practices and contribute to improved pregnancy outcomes in women and newborns.

The study used quantitative baseline data from the AQCESS (Access to Quality Care through Extending and Strengthening Health Systems) and IMPACT (Improving Access to Reproductive, Maternal and Newborn Health in Mwanza) projects, both executed by the Aga Khan Foundation Canada with funding from the Government of Canada, being implemented in Kenya and Tanzania, respectively. The projects aim to contribute to the reduction of maternal and neonatal mortality in Kisii (Bomachoge Borabu sub-county) and Kilifi (Kaloleni/Rabai sub-counties) counties in Kenya and Mwanza region (Illemela, Nyamagana, Buchosa, Sengerema, Ukerewe, Misungwi, Kwimba and Magu districts) in Tanzania. Bomachoge Borabu sub-county is one of the nine sub-counties in Kisii County with a population of 129,617 people. In 2015, the county had 53.3% of health facilities deliveries and 76.6% deliveries assisted by skilled providers [14]. Kaloleni and Rabai are coastal sub-counties in Kilifi County with a population of 304,778; 52.6% health facility deliveries and 52.3% skilled birth attendance [14]. Mwanza region lies in the northern part of Tanzania and has a population of 2,772,509 people; 57.2% of the women attending at least four ANC visits and 75.3% hospital delivery [29]. The two countries and the regions within the countries were chosen due to their high maternal mortality [14, 15]. The sample size for the households was calculated to detect a 10% difference in skilled birth attendance between the projects’ baseline and end line. The sample size was calculated using the proportion of deliveries assisted by a skilled provider for each of the study areas (61.8% for Kenya and 63.7% for Tanzania), design effect of 2, level of significance of 95%, a margin of error of 5% and non-response rate of 10%. The total number of households required for the survey were 960 in Kisii, 1100 in Kilifi, and 1676 in Mwanza. Out of which 518, 664, and 1176 women were eligible and interviewed in Kisii, Kilifi, and Mwanza, respectively. A community-based multi-stage cluster design was used. A total of 30 villages each in Kenya and Tanzania were selected based on the number of households in the first stage followed by a random selection of households from lists of households within the villages in the second stage. At the households, all women of reproductive age and who consented were interviewed. Data were collected in August 2016 and August 2017 for AQCESS and IMPACT projects, respectively using a pretested questionnaire with questions about BPCR adopted from the monitoring BPCR tools for maternal and newborn health was used for data collection [30]. The English questionnaire was translated into Swahili, Ekegusii and Kigiriama; the common languages among the study participants. Trained data collectors entered data to the Open Data Kits platform which had electronic versions of the questionnaires with in-built data validation and quality checks. Data were stored onto a secure cloud server after a completeness check by a supervisor. All the selected households were included in the interviews; in case there was no eligible respondent available at the time of data collection, three revisits attempts were made before the households were declared unavailable. BPCR, the main outcome variable, was assessed by asking women if a member of their family or herself prepared the following on the last birth: “1) discuss the place of delivery, 2) discuss who will perform the delivery, 3) set aside funds for the delivery, 4) arrange transport, and 5) identify a blood donor.” A woman was considered to be well-prepared for birth and its complications if she mentioned at least three out of five key components of BPCR [6, 9, 13], and less prepared if mentioned less than three and not prepared, if she mentioned none. Similarly, a woman was considered to have good knowledge about danger signs if she spontaneously mentioned at least three danger signs during pregnancy, labour and childbirth and postpartum [2, 31]; poor knowledge, if she mentioned less than three, and no knowledge, if she mentioned none. A list of all danger signs in each continuum of care is included in additional file 1. Independent variables included maternal age, level of education (none, primary, secondary+), place of delivery (home, health facility), number of ANC visits (none, 1–3 visits, 4+ visits), and knowledge of danger signs during pregnancy, labour and childbirth, and postpartum. Categorical data were described using frequencies and percentages and continuous data using median and interquartile ranges (IQR). A univariate model was fitted to examine associations between each variable and the ordered categories of BPCR. Variables with p-value < 0.25 in the univariate model were fitted in the multivariable Proportional Odds regression model to determine their association with the dependent variable (ordered categories of BPCR) while controlling for the confounding effect of the explanatory variables [32]. Due to the ordinal nature of the outcome, Proportional Odds model [32] with a logit link function was used in both univariate and multivariable regression analysis to determine the association between the explanatory variables and the outcome. For the three categories of the outcome, the response is equivalent to two binary responses; (i) well-prepared versus less prepared or not prepared and (ii) well-prepared or less prepared versus not prepared. In this case, there is a cut-off point (threshold) at well-prepared the first logit and another at less prepared to form the second logit. The model can be defined in its simplest form as follows: Where, αj are separate intercept parameters, j is the level of an ordered category with 3 levels, β′ different sets of regression parameters for each logit and x are a set of explanatory variables. The model thresholds and coefficients are estimated simultaneously using maximum likelihood procedure. Each cumulative logit has intercept, which increases with the categories of the outcome. The model assumes the same effects of β for each of the two dependent variables [33]. Crude and adjusted odds ratio with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated to determine the strength and presence of associations. We used “svy” set command in Stata to adjust for clustering effect due to the complex sampling design of the study at the village level. We test the proportionality of odds for the outcomes using likelihood ratio and Brant tests. All the analysis were done using Stata version 15 [34]. The STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies informed the design and reporting of this study [35].

The study “Birth preparedness and complication readiness among women of reproductive age in Kenya and Tanzania: a community-based cross-sectional survey” recommends the following strategies to improve access to maternal health:

1. Improve level of education: Increasing access to education, particularly primary and secondary education, can empower women with knowledge and skills related to maternal health.

2. Create awareness on danger signs: Conducting awareness campaigns and providing information about danger signs during preconception, pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum periods can help women and their families identify potential complications and seek timely medical care.

3. Encourage antenatal care: Promoting regular antenatal care visits can ensure that pregnant women receive essential health services and education about birth preparedness and complication readiness.

4. Promote skilled birth care: Encouraging women to deliver in health facilities with skilled birth attendants can significantly reduce the risk of maternal and neonatal complications.

5. Involve male partners and families: Engaging male partners and families in maternal health discussions and decision-making can enhance birth preparedness and complication readiness.

These strategies aim to improve access to maternal health services, enhance birth preparedness, and reduce preventable maternal and neonatal deaths in low-resource settings.
AI Innovations Description
The recommendation to improve access to maternal health based on the study “Birth preparedness and complication readiness among women of reproductive age in Kenya and Tanzania: a community-based cross-sectional survey” includes the following strategies:

1. Improve level of education: Increasing access to education, particularly primary and secondary education, can empower women with knowledge and skills related to maternal health. Education can help women understand the importance of birth preparedness and complication readiness, as well as recognize danger signs during pregnancy, labor, and postpartum.

2. Create awareness on danger signs: Conducting awareness campaigns and providing information about danger signs during preconception, pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum periods can help women and their families identify potential complications and seek timely medical care. This can be done through community-based education programs, health promotion materials, and engagement with local healthcare providers.

3. Encourage antenatal care: Promoting regular antenatal care visits can ensure that pregnant women receive essential health services, including screenings, vaccinations, and counseling. Antenatal care visits provide an opportunity for healthcare providers to educate women about birth preparedness and complication readiness, as well as address any concerns or questions they may have.

4. Promote skilled birth care: Encouraging women to deliver in health facilities with skilled birth attendants can significantly reduce the risk of maternal and neonatal complications. Providing information about the benefits of skilled birth care and addressing barriers such as transportation and financial constraints can help increase facility-based deliveries.

5. Involve male partners and families: Engaging male partners and families in maternal health discussions and decision-making can enhance birth preparedness and complication readiness. Encouraging their participation in antenatal care visits and providing education on their role in supporting maternal health can contribute to improved pregnancy outcomes.

Implementing these strategies can help improve access to maternal health services, enhance birth preparedness, and reduce preventable maternal and neonatal deaths in low-resource settings.
AI Innovations Methodology
To simulate the impact of the main recommendations on improving access to maternal health based on the study “Birth preparedness and complication readiness among women of reproductive age in Kenya and Tanzania: a community-based cross-sectional survey,” you could consider the following methodology:

1. Define the target population: Determine the population of women of reproductive age in Kenya and Tanzania who would benefit from improved access to maternal health services.

2. Collect baseline data: Gather information on the current level of education, awareness of danger signs, utilization of antenatal care, and skilled birth care among the target population. This data can be obtained through surveys, interviews, or existing datasets.

3. Implement interventions: Introduce the recommended strategies, such as improving education, creating awareness campaigns, promoting antenatal care, and involving male partners and families. These interventions can be implemented through various channels, including community-based programs, healthcare facilities, and educational institutions.

4. Monitor and evaluate: Track the progress and impact of the interventions over a specified period of time. Collect data on key indicators, such as the percentage of women receiving education, the level of awareness of danger signs, the utilization of antenatal care, and the rate of skilled birth attendance.

5. Analyze the data: Use statistical analysis techniques to assess the changes in the key indicators before and after implementing the interventions. Compare the baseline data with the post-intervention data to determine the impact of the recommendations on improving access to maternal health.

6. Interpret the results: Analyze the findings to understand the effectiveness of each recommendation and identify any challenges or barriers that may have affected the outcomes. Consider the strengths and limitations of the interventions and make recommendations for further improvement.

7. Disseminate the findings: Share the results of the simulation study with relevant stakeholders, including policymakers, healthcare providers, and community organizations. Use the findings to advocate for the implementation of evidence-based strategies to improve access to maternal health services.

By following this methodology, you can simulate the impact of the main recommendations from the study and provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of implementing these strategies in improving access to maternal health in Kenya and Tanzania.

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