Menu
Menu
Menu
Menu
Background: Interventions aimed at reducing maternal mortality are increasingly complex. Understanding how complex interventions are delivered, to whom, and how they work is key in ensuring their rapid scale-up. We delivered a vital signs triage intervention into routine maternity care in eight low- and middle-income countries with the aim of reducing a composite outcome of morbidity and mortality. This was a pragmatic, hybrid effectiveness-implementation stepped-wedge randomised controlled trial. In this study, we present the results of the mixed-methods process evaluation. The aim was to describe implementation and local context and integrate results to determine whether differences in the effect of the intervention across sites could be explained. Methods: The duration and content of implementation, uptake of the intervention and its impact on clinical management were recorded. These were integrated with interviews (n = 36) and focus groups (n = 19) at 3 months and 6-9 months after implementation. In order to determine the effect of implementation on effectiveness, measures were ranked and averaged across implementation domains to create a composite implementation strength score and then correlated with the primary outcome. Results: Overall, 61.1% (n = 2747) of health care providers were trained in the intervention (range 16.5% to 89.2%) over a mean of 10.8 days. Uptake and acceptability of the intervention was good. All clusters demonstrated improved availability of vital signs equipment. There was an increase in the proportion of women having their blood pressure measured in pregnancy following the intervention (79.2% vs. 97.6%; OR 1.30 (1.29-1.31)) and no significant change in referral rates (3.7% vs. 4.4% OR 0.89; (0.39-2.05)). Availability of resources and acceptable, effective referral systems influenced health care provider interaction with the intervention. There was no correlation between process measures within or between domains, or between the composite score and the primary outcome. Conclusions: This process evaluation has successfully described the quantity and quality of implementation. Variation in implementation and context did not explain differences in the effectiveness of the intervention on maternal mortality and morbidity. We suggest future trials should prioritise in-depth evaluation of local context and clinical pathways. Trial registration: Trial registration: ISRCTN41244132. Registered on 2 Feb 2016.
The intervention comprised the CRADLE VSA delivered through a one-off interactive training session of CRADLE Champions. These were purposely selected HCP from each ward or facility in the trial cluster. They were selected prior to implementation, either as managers and/or as influential in their clinical area by the local research team. Interactive training sessions covered the use and maintenance of the device and suggested clinical management in response to abnormal vital signs using presentations, demonstration, practice and clinical scenarios. The CRADLE Champions were provided with posters, training manuals and a short, animated training film (sent by Bluetooth to smartphones). The CRADLE Champions then used these materials to provide ongoing training and support in their clinical area. These components of the intervention and implementation were developed during a 6-month feasibility phase with input from stakeholders [38]. The local research team continued to provide regular support to all facilities with at least monthly contact. Existing equipment for measuring vital signs was usually removed from clinical use, unless it had a specific function such as automation for high dependency. This intervention was compared to routine maternity care using locally available medical devices and management guidelines [26, 40]. Each cluster comprised at least one urban or peri-urban secondary or tertiary health facility that provided comprehensive emergency obstetric care with multiple peripheral facilities that refer to the central hospital [26]. The stepped-wedge design meant that clusters crossed over from control to the CRADLE intervention in one of nine steps at two monthly intervals over the 20-month trial duration. The order of steps was randomly allocated using a computer-generated sequence [26]. This design was chosen to minimise the risk of bias and show causality, should a significant effect of the intervention be demonstrated. All HCP working in maternity care in the cluster facilities had access to the intervention including community HCP in two clusters where they were active in routine maternity care and approved for inclusion (Ndola and Cap Haitien). All women identified as pregnant or within 42 days of delivery, that presented to routine maternity care, were exposed to the intervention without exclusion. The primary outcome was a composite of at least one of maternal death, eclampsia or emergency hysterectomy per 10,000 deliveries. The implementation and impact of the intervention in each site was evaluated by mixed-methods under three implementation domains as shown in Fig. 2, informed by the RE-AIM framework [15, 18, 41]. We identified potential ways in which the intervention may be working, and the necessary resources and actions required for this, then selected measures that were important but feasible to collect within this pragmatic, multi-centre trial design [38]. Implementation domains and methods of data collection. Asterisk denotes quantitative measure included in the ranking analysis. HCP health care provider, BP blood pressure, VSA Vital Signs Alert Baseline data were collected from each facility on the distance from the nearest tertiary referral hospital; number of HCP working in maternity (doctors, nurses, midwives, clinical officers and community HCP in Ndola and Cap Haitien); availability of existing BP equipment; blood transfusion services; intensive care beds; and magnesium sulfate. These were selected as markers of health system context that were important and feasible to measure. This was updated a minimum of three times during the trial period. Major changes to the political or physical environment such as infrastructure, staff retention and extreme weather conditions were evaluated monthly. The number of deliveries in each cluster was collected by review of facility registers and routine reporting. Community deliveries were captured through a variety of methods such as household visits from community health workers in India and monthly reporting meetings with traditional birth attendants in Haiti (three sites did not routinely record deliveries that occur outside of facilities). Training was observed against a pre-defined observational checklist, including the number of training days and the proportion of core content delivered. Training registers were completed and compared to staffing numbers. All clusters reported at six monthly intervals on the proportion of clinical areas using the CRADLE VSA device. In order to evaluate the ways in which the intervention, and participants interaction with it, may trigger change (mechanisms of action) [38], the number of women attending maternity services, the proportion that had their BP measured and the proportion referred to higher level care were measured for a 4-week period immediately prior to implementation and 3 months after implementation. This was integrated with qualitative findings on context and use of the device. In each site, we undertook semi-structured interviews (n = 3–5) and focus group discussions (n = 1) with HCP, 3 months after implementation. These explored the uptake of the intervention, its influence on clinical management and any unexpected consequences. In sites that implemented in the first 14 months of the trial, a further focus group discussion was undertaken at 6–9 months after implementation to explore whether influence on clinical management, escalation and referral systems changed over time and the sustainability of the intervention. In total, we conducted 36 interviews and 19 focus group discussions with 130 participants across the ten sites. Participants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure representation of different HCP cadres and facilities. Participants were approached face-to-face and gave written informed consent. These were recorded, and transcribed verbatim and field notes were recorded. Content and notes were reviewed iteratively to identify further participants until data saturation was achieved. All qualitative work was undertaken, translated and transcribed by experienced local research coordinators (with clinical background) following training from the trial coordinator and senior social scientist (JS) or qualitative researchers. Researchers had limited prior relationship with the participants. Two data coders that were independent to the interviewers undertook initial analysis using QSR NVivo 11 software (QRS, Vic, Australia) prior to revealing the analysis of the primary outcome then further analysis once the results were known. We used the framework method with a coding framework that drew upon the study objectives, logic model and interview guide [42, 43]. New concepts initiated by participants that could not be categorised were coded using an inductive approach [44]. In order to compare implementation and determine whether this was related to effectiveness, we used a ranking approach as previously described in other fields [45–47]. Clusters were ranked from highest to lowest on selected quantitative outcomes on implementation fidelity, reach and adoption (marked by an asterisk Fig. 2). These were selected as the direction of benefit was clear, whereas the anticipated direction of change for outcomes on context and action were less clear (e.g. poorer availability of resources at the trial start may be associated with greater benefit from the intervention due to greater need, or less benefit due to inability to respond to abnormal vital signs). Outcomes under the same domain were averaged and converted to a possible range (0 to 1) to give each cluster a score for each domain analysed (implementation fidelity, reach and adoption). These were then averaged to give each cluster a single composite score reflecting their implementation (possible range 0–1) [45–47]. Due to the stepped-wedge design, the single measure of adoption was only available in eight of the ten sites. The individual domain scores and overall composite score were compared to primary outcome in each site. Correlation between the individual measures within domains was also determined [48]. Statistical analyses were undertaken in Stata version 14.2. For the primary outcome in individual sites, the main analysis used logistic regression with generalised estimating equations and a population-averaged model. Adjustments were made for fixed centre effects (categorical) and separate fixed linear trends (continuous) in each centre to account for changes in the primary outcome over time [49]. Results are reported as odds ratios (ORs). Details of randomisation and further analysis of the trial are published in protocol [26] and primary results paper [50]. For the evaluation of implementation, the ranks were summarised, and simple rank correlations calculated. We used meta-regression to see if the primary outcome in individual sites were related to the individual and composite implementation scores [51]. For comparison of referral rates before and after implementation, unadjusted OR were calculated and combined using random effects meta-analysis [52]. In each site a 4-week period immediately prior to and 3 months after implementation were compared; this is a non-randomised comparison.
